scottish vs irish facial features

- Disentangling the environmental factors and relative parental biological contributions to heritable traits can help to answer the age-old question why we look the way that we do?. Genome-wide association study of three-dimensional facial morphology identifies a variant in PAX3 associated with nasion position. Other possible benefits that have been explored include: the fitness advantages of hair color (Adhikari et al., 2016; Hysi et al., 2018), nasal shape and climate adaptation (Zaidi et al., 2017) and the benefits of darker skin pigmentation (Wilde et al., 2014; Aelion et al., 2016). Facial masculinity does not appear to be a condition-dependent male ornament in humans and does not reflect MHC heterozygosity. In the 2017 American Community Survey, 5.39 (2017). A systematic review and meta-analyses. Alcohol. 224, 688709. doi: 10.3390/ijerph10115953. Acquiring as much information as possible in relation known genetic additive effects, environmental factors and previous medical histories of family members (Grandparents, parents and offspring) will provide further insights into facial relatedness. doi: 10.1016/j.jchb.2009.10.003, Joubert, B. R., Felix, J. F., Yousefi, P., Bakulski, K. M., Just, A. C., Breton, C., etal. PLoS Comput. Focusing on specific phenotypes and genetic variants in families will identify additional rare variants should be followed-up with a combination of genotyping and deep re-sequencing of the variants or genes of interest in large numbers of cases and controls. In addition, anthropometric masks have been proposed whereby five landmarks are used to crudely orientate the 3D facial shells which are then non-rigidly mapped on to a template which generates about 10,000 quasi landmarks (Claes et al., 2012). Presumably because of frequent consanguineous marriages, later Habsburg rulers often had extreme facial phenotypes such as the characteristic Habsburg jaw (mandibular prognathism). (2018). Maternal active smoking and risk of oral clefts: a meta-analysis. 3:e002910. Behav. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009027, Al Ali, A., Richmond, S., Popat, H., Toma, A. M., Playle, R., Pickles, T., et al. Epigenetic regulation in neural crest development. doi: 10.1093/ejo/cjs067, Allis, C. D., and Jenuwein, T. (2016). Elucidating the genetics of craniofacial shape. II. A novel strategy for forensic age prediction by DNA methylation and support vector regression model. Nat. B., et al. What is considered rude in Ireland? 11, 180185. Genetic and environmental contributions to facial morphological variation: a 3D population-based twin study. Scottish sounds very aggressive while the Irish sounds lively. C Embryo Today 84, 1629. 1. Permutation testing is a valid alternative for more conservative tests such as Bonferroni (Sham and Purcell, 2014). Features: Some Swedes have a full faces, with the eyes high up. Predominantly genetic influences have been reported for anterior face height, relative prominence of the maxilla and mandible, width of the face/nose, nasal root shape, naso-labial angle, allometry and centroid size (Carels et al., 2001; Carson, 2006; Jelenkovic et al., 2010; Djordjevic et al., 2013a,b, 2016; Cole et al., 2017; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017). doi: 10.1038/ng.2971, Van der Beek, M. C., Hoeksma, J. Med. Historical migrations, such as the European colonization of Latin America, led to genetic admixture (breeding between individuals from previously isolated populations) (Hellenthal et al., 2014), which greatly influenced the facial morphology of the Latin American population. 67, 489497. Curr. (2003). Rare Mendelian mutations, low frequency segregating variants, copy number variants and common variants contribute to complex phenotypes. (2007). 128, 424430. doi: 10.2217/epi-2017-0095, Sharp, G. C., Ho, K., Davies, A., Stergiakouli, E., Humphries, K., McArdle, W., et al. Genet. doi: 10.1016/S0889-5406(94)70038-9, Popat, H., Richmond, S., and Drage, N. A. Dis. 5. WebThey were white-skinned with black hair. The final difference between Scotch and Irish whiskey is the taste. Genet. Shared genetic pathways may influence both normal-range variation in facial morphology and craniofacial anomalies. 214, 291302. Some reported genes appear to influence different parts of the face. Pflugers. Sci. Eur. Even with relatively long acquisition times for some photogrammetric, MRI, CT, and CBCT systems, facial landmark reliability of less than 0.5 mm can be achieved (Kau et al., 2005, 2007; Liu et al., 2012). De Greef, S., Claes, P., Vandermeulen, D., Mollemans, W., Suetens, P., and Willems, G. (2006). Detecting genetic association of common human facial morphological variation using high density 3D image registration. Genetics 205, 967978. They just released a fascinating study which aligns many pictures of individuals from every country and created composite images of what the average face would look like. J. Orthod. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2018.04.004, Claes, P., Liberton, D. K., Daniels, K., Rosana, K. M., Quillen, E. E., Pearson, L. N., et al. The molecular hallmarks of epigenetic control. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0544.2001.040303.x, Carson, E. A. Since Scotland appeared in only one of the names, some people wondered what had happened to their Scottish ancestry. You also have the ginger/red hair colour that is quite common on the british isles, most common in Ireland and Scotland, I believe. Am. 130, 556559. Almond-shaped, heavy eyes are characteristic of Cherokee Indians, a trait that is due to an extra fold in the eyelid. Last year, the dark-skinned, blue-eyed facial reconstruction of Cheddar Man, a 10,000-year-old British resident, made international headlines and sparked discussions about native identity in a nation grappling with Brexit and issues of migration.. Now, a new exhibit is revealing the faces of seven more ancient locals from the coast of southern Expression of chick Barx-1 and its differential regulation by FGF-8 and BMP signaling in the maxillary primordia. However they differ in the way these ingredients are used. Hoyme, H. E., Kalberg, W. O., Elliott, A. J., Blankenship, J., Buckley, D., Marais, A. S., et al. 22, 38073817. Int. There is some evidence to suggest that there are additive genetic effects on nose shape involving SOX9, DCHS2, CASC17, PAX1, RUNX2, and GL13 and chin shape, SOX9 and ASPM. (2018). doi: 10.1002/ajhb.21208, Jelenkovic, A., Poveda, A., Susanne, C., and Rebato, E. (2010). Approaching ethical, legal and social issues of emerging forensic DNA phenotyping (FDP) technologies comprehensively: reply to Forensic DNA phenotyping: predicting human appearance from crime scene material for investigative purposes by Manfred Kayser. Differences in horizontal, neoclassical facial canons in Chinese (Han) and North American Caucasian populations. Richmond, S. A., Ali, A. M., Beldi, L., Chong, Y. T., Cronin, A., Djordjevic, J., et al. - Highlighting what is known about shared facial traits, medical conditions and genes. Many of the previously discussed genetic variants associated with facial traits in GWAS reside in non-protein coding regions of the genome with unclear functional relevance. The disruption of neuro-facial developmental and maturational processes can lead to widespread and long-lasting abnormalities in central nervous system structure and functions and some of these disturbances will also be accompanied with subtle differences in facial features (Hennessy et al., 2010). 2016:3054578. doi: 10.1155/2016/3054578, Ruiz-Linares, A., Adhikari, K., Acua-Alonzo, V., Quinto-Sanchez, M., Jaramillo, C., Arias, W., et al. doi: 10.1002/rcs.141. 17:487. doi: 10.1038/nrg.2016.59, Alvizi, L., Ke, X., Brito, L. A., Seselgyte, R., Moore, G. E., Stanier, P., et al. 38, 493502. The determination of facial appearance, health history and future health risk from DNA is has great potential (Claes et al., 2014; Kayser, 2015; Toom et al., 2016) but caution should be expressed with respect to assumptions, interpretation and individual confidentiality as there is a significant threat to an individual in obtaining healthcare insurance (Hallgrimsson et al., 2014; Idemyor, 2014; Toom et al., 2016). Craniofacial Res. They are, of course, there, but literally at units. Standardized clinical facial charts/tables/measures are routinely used for newborns (e.g., head circumference, body length) and other specialties such as, ophthalmology and orthodontics. Int. Yes, Irish people do have (2014). Epigenomics 10, 2742. 415, 171187. Hammond, P., and Suttie, M. (2012). 67, 261268. 101, 913924. Genomic views of distant-acting enhancers. Ideally facial images should be captured at birth, 5, 9, 12, 15, and 18 years of age and repeated every 10 years of age to capture facial features. 10:e1004724. The availability of summary statistics on large GWAS studies will also enable the application of quantitative genetics methods to further investigate the genetic architecture of facial morphology. The Argyle has fewer buttons and is suitable for daytime and evening use. SR and SL wrote the section Heritability. Genome-wide association study of sexual maturation in males and females highlights a role for body mass and menarche loci in male puberty. doi: 10.1126/science.1243518, Hemani, G., Tilling, K., and Smith, G. D. (2017). Science 342:1241006. doi: 10.1126/science.1241006, Barlow, A. J., Bogardi, J. P., Ladher, R., and Francis-West, P. H. (1999). Lancet Oncol. Those distillation processes might not seem like a big difference, but the effect is pretty pronounced. Large-scale objective phenotyping of 3D facial morphology. Bioessays 29, 145154. With improving knowledge of the controlling mechanisms for normal and abnormal facial development, it is logical to pursue healthcare strategies in the first instance to prevent craniofacial anomalies arising, with discussion of risks with genetic counseling, possibly future gene therapies and the follow up with minimally invasive or non-surgical, scarless procedures to correct craniofacial anomalies such as cleft lip and palate and control vertical and horizontal growth particularly of the upper and lower jaws and nose. A quantitative genetic study of cephalometric variables in twins. Curr. Environ. Most epigenetic changes are transient and not generally heritable. doi: 10.1534/genetics.116.193185, Cousminer, D. L., Berry, D. J, Timpson, N. J., Ang, W., Thiering, E., Byrne, E. M., et al. With any change in face shape the complex processes and communications at the biological and genome levels need to be identified and explained. Peter Forsberg (hockey player) (Notice how his eyes are higher up. Use of 3-dimensional surface acquisition to study facial morphology in 5 populations. Zaidi, A. doi: 10.1038/414909a, Leslie, E. J., Carlson, J. C., Shaffer, J. R., Butali, A., Bux, C. J., Castilla, E. E., et al. Previous studies have found strong evidence supporting associations between prenatal smoke exposure (Joubert et al., 2016) and folate supplementation (Richmond R.C. Recognizable features of the human face develop around the 4th week of gestation and are closely related to cranial neural crest cells (Marcucio et al., 2015). A. Acad. doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2013.289, Howe, L. J., Lee, M. K., Sharp, G. C., Smith, G. D., St Pourcain, B., Shaffer, J. R., et al. Maternal alcohol consumption and offspring DNA methylation: findings from six general population-based birth cohorts. Theres nothing the Irish love more than the craic. Facial fluctuating asymmetry is not associated with childhood ill-health in a large British cohort study. Much confusion has arisen from the inaccurate use of the terms " Celt " and " Celtic." Vis. Am. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity: British children, 1965. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572, Schmidt, E., and Kornfeld, J. W. (2016). doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.0778, Munn, L., and Stephan, C. N. (2018). A previous orofacial cleft GWAS found no clear evidence for enrichment of tissue-specific signals, concluding that this may be attributable to a lack of suitable tissue types (Leslie et al., 2017). A genome-wide association study identifies five loci influencing facial morphology in Europeans. Anthropol. Robot 6, 422430. Jelenkovic, A., Ortega-Alonso, A., Rose, R. J., Kaprio, J., Rebato, E., and Silventoinen, K. (2011). 33:245. Res. Contrastingly, previous estimates suggest that antero-posterior face height, mandibular body length, ramus height, upper vermillion height, nasal width and maxillary protrusion are more strongly influenced by environmental factors (Jelenkovic et al., 2010; Djordjevic et al., 2016; Sidlauskas et al., 2016; Cole et al., 2017; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017). Do Irish people have hooded eyelids? Biomed. J. Hum. Dev. doi: 10.2174/157015907781695955, Wilde, S., Timpson, A., Kirsanow, K., Kaiser, E., Kayser, M., Unterlnder, M., et al. Nose shape and climate. It originated in the 1500's and is always performed to traditional Irish music. (2018b). Genet. Front. Genet. Early growth genetics (EGG) consortium. (2017). Birth Defects Res. 15, 335346. The growing number of GWAS datasets has allowed exploration of the shared genetic influences on different phenotypes (Bulik-Sullivan B. et al., 2015; Pickrell et al., 2016). doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004724, Hallgrimsson, B., Percival, C. J., Green, R., Young, N. M., Mio, W., and Marcucio, R. (2015). Oral Pathol. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2000.1327, Little, A. C., Penton-Voak, I. S., Burt, D. M., and Perrett, D. I. R. Soc. It is important to identify early life exposures (particularly conception to birth) that may influence later life health outcomes. There was reduced facial convexity (SNAI1), obtuse nasolabial angles, more protrusive chins (SNAI1, IRF6, MSX1, MAFB), increased lower facial heights (SNAI1), thinner and more retrusive lips and more protrusive foreheads (ABCA4-ARHGAP29, MAFB) in the nsCL/P relatives compared to controls. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-60964-5_59. A population-based cross-sectional study of the association between facial morphology and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescence. J. Orthod. 7:10815. doi: 10.1038/ncomms10815, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Aelion, C. M., Airhihenbuwa, C. O., Alemagno, S., Amler, R. W., Arnett, D. K., Balas, A., et al. List of genes and SNPs associated with normal variation ranked by chromosome position (GWAS). Development 129, 46474660. 21, 265269. Information on an individuals facial morphology can have several important clinical and forensic applications; informing patient specific models, improving and reducing the need for extensive surgical interventions for craniofacial anomalies/trauma, prediction/reconstruction of the facial form from skeletal remains, and identification of suspects from DNA (Stephan et al., 2005; De Greef et al., 2006; Wilkinson et al., 2006; Beldie et al., 2010; Popat et al., 2010, 2012; Richmond et al., 2012; Al Ali et al., 2014a; Shrimpton et al., 2014; Farnell et al., 2017; Richmond S. et al., 2018). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162250, Evans, D. M. (2018). The Face and Age. This has been proposed as a method to build a profile of facial features from a sample of DNA (Claes et al., 2014) but could also be used to determine previous health history or future health risks (Idemyor, 2014). There is no one answer to this question as everyone has their own unique facial features. Tartan. Second, when testing causality, epigenetic modifications can vary across the life-course, so it can be difficult to discern the direction of effect between an epigenetic modification and the phenotype. Reconstr. Armstrong, D. A., Green, B. First all-in-one diagnostic tool for DNA intelligence: genome-wide inference of biogeographic ancestry, appearance, relatedness, and sex with the Identitas v1 Forensic Chip. EX. Genetic and environmental influences on growth from late childhood to adulthood: a longitudinal study of two Finnish twin cohorts. The genes and broad regional associations are shown in Table 2 (ordered by facial feature and chromosome) and Figure 1 (showing facial region). doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2015.02.003, Keating, B., Bansal, A. T., Walsh, S., Millman, J., Newman, J., Kidd, K., et al. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Early growth genetics consortium. - Many factors such as ancestry, sex, eye/hair color as well as distinctive facial features (such as, shape of the chin, cheeks, eyes, forehead, lips, and nose) can be identified or estimated using an individuals genetic data, with potential applications in healthcare and forensics. A 123a, 211230. Aesthetic. Richmond, S., Wilson-Nagrani, C., Zhurov, A. I., Farnell, D., Galloway, J., Mohd Ali, A. S., Pirttiniemi, P., Katic, V. (2018). Acad. 6. The faces are narrow, you might say hollow. J. Craniofac. Dentofacial Orthop. B Biol. (2016). Features related to appearance are also often sexually dimorphic, possibly as a result of sexual and natural selection. (2008). Similarly, genetic variations associated with normal-range facial differences have been linked to genes involved in Mendelian syndromes such as TBX15 (Cousin syndrome) (Shaffer et al., 2017; Claes et al., 2018), PAX1 (Otofaciocervical syndrome) (Shaffer et al., 2016) and PAX3 (Waardenburg syndrome) (Paternoster et al., 2012). (2014). doi: 10.1093/ije/dyg070, Som, P. M., and Naidich, T. P. (2013). The GWAS studies have provided insights into the genetic influences on facial shape. 3. For this reason, ancestral markers are often included in facial prediction models (Claes et al., 2014; Ruiz-Linares et al., 2014; Lippert et al., 2017). Identifying genetic variants influencing facial phenotypes can lead to improved etiological understanding of craniofacial anomalies, advances in forensic prediction using DNA and testing of evolutionary hypotheses. Child 41, 613635. Surg. 13:e1006616. (2011). Proc. Ashique, A. M., Fu, K., and Richman, J. M. (2002). Public Health 10, 59535970. Sharp, G. C., Arathimos, R., Reese, S. E., Page, C. M., Felix, J., Kpers, L. K., et al. Nat. (2018). (2011). They tend to have red hair, freckles, lighter complexion, pronounced cheekbones, rounder face, blue eyes & green eyes. bioRxiv:322255. J. Med. Dentofacial Orthop. 18, 549555. LH and AZ wrote the section Environmental Influences. While the R in Scottish is hardly spoken like there are two Rs, the TH in Irish, on the other hand, sounds like a soft T. Scott, I. M., Clark, A. P., Boothroyd, L. G., and Penton-Voak, I. S. (2013). Dentofacial Orthop. (2010). Previously published studies that have identified gene-phenotype associations which provides evidence of associations for complex facial traits which can be integrated into prediction models. Cleft lip and palate: understanding genetic and environmental influences. Nat. 59(Suppl. However, a small proportion of epigenetic changes are transgenerational (Rachdaoui and Sarkar, 2014). One possibility is that these variants may influence facial phenotypes through gene regulation pathways involving epigenetic processes. 47, 291295. J. Orthod. Child 41, 454471. BMC Genomics 19:481. doi: 10.1186/s12864-018-4865-9, Chaitanya, L., Breslin, K., Zuniga, S., Wirken, L., Pospiech, E., Kukla-Bartoszek, M., et al. 41, 161176. Eur. Epigenet. Forensic DNA Phenotyping: predicting human appearance from crime scene material for investigative purposes. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 674685. Distinct DNA methylation profiles in subtypes of orofacial cleft. Generally, most modifiable environmental factors have only subtle effects on the face. Nat. doi: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2013.01.019, Menezes, R., and Vieira, A. R. (2008). N. Sharman (London: BBC One, BBC), 2 minutes. Mutat. Hum. For example, significantly more women self-report having blonde and red hair while more men as self-report as having black hair (Hysi et al., 2018). Am. (2015). bioRxiv. Disentangling these shared pathways can improve understanding of the biological processes that are important during embryonic development. 289, 4050. 115, 561597. (2014). (2017). 23, 44524464. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118355, Paternoster, L., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., Kemp, J. P., Pourcain, B. S., Timpson, N. J., et al. doi: 10.1007/s12024-006-0007-9, Wilson, C., Playle, R., Toma, A., Zhurov, A., Ness, A., and Richmond, S. (2013). Genet. From the moment of conception, the parental environment can influence the development of the fetus. J. Anat. Genetic and facial phenotype data can be used to improve understanding of human history. 281:20141639. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1639, Rachdaoui, N., and Sarkar, D. K. (2014). Epigenet 2:dvw020. The possible evolutionary advantages of facial phenotypes have been discussed extensively but anthropological hypotheses can be tested using genetic and facial phenotype data. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity: British children, 1965. Oral Radiol. J. Craniomaxillofac. 46, 753758. Hum. (2014). 227, 474486. Genet. Sci. However, recent studies suggest that DNA has the potential to identify an individual from a small group of possible candidates (Claes et al., 2014; Biedermann et al., 2015; Kayser, 2015). 42, 525529. Firstly we have to put in mind that that both the Celtic and Germanic are a Northern and Central European people. Thus as Europeans from those regi Historically, craniofacial genetic research has understandably focused on identifying the causes of craniofacial anomalies and it has only been within the last 10 years, that there has been a drive to detail the biological basis of normal-range facial variation. 7 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Acquiring Facial Surface Morphology and Describing/Quantifying Facial Shape, Disentangling Genetic and Environmental Factors, Understanding the Etiology of Craniofacial Anomalies, Shared Influences of Facial and Other Traits, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). 3. 24, 286292. Low alcohol consumption and pregnancy and childhood outcomes: time to change guidelines indicating apparently safe levels of alcohol during pregnancy? I notice that many folks from the South and Lower Midwest (especially Kentucky, Indiana and Tennessee), where Irish and Scottish ancestry are the most (2007). Res. Res. Am. They both use potatoes, oats, barley, dairy products, lamb, bacon, herring, salmon, scallops, and beef. The size and heterogeneity of these data sets pose new challenges to efficiently and effectively, store, simplify and analyze the relative interactions and influences for a large number of face shape variables. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007501, Howe, L. J., Richardson, T. G., Arathimos, R., Alvizi, L., Passos-Bueno, M.-R., Stanier, P., et al. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddh052, Stephan, C., Norris, R., and Henneberg, M. (2005). doi: 10.1016/j.jcms.2010.12.005, Pound, N., Lawson, D. W., Toma, A. M., Richmond, S., Zhurov, A. I., and Penton-Voak, I. S. (2014). (2016). There have been nine GWAS studies and it is appropriate to try and integrate their findings through a meta-analysis. Indeed, the last Habsburg King of Spain, Charles II, was reported to have had difficulties eating and speaking because of facial deformities. Most modern Celts have dark hair and a red beard. In addition, there is evidence of pleiotropy, quantitative phenotypes and Mendelian traits all influencing multiple phenotypes suggesting a large number of loci contribute additively to facial variation. (2016). Dev. Acad. Your dinner is not Dev. Biol. Eur. 115, 299320. PLoS Genet. SR, ES, SL, and LH wrote the section Craniofacial Shape Gene Discovery. Indeed, a previous study demonstrated that a major risk locus for non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (nsCL/P), in a non-coding interval, is involved in the regulation of gene expression in the developing murine face (Uslu et al., 2014) while another study found some evidence that nsCL/P genetic variants may influence nsCL/P risk via changes in DNA methylation and gene expression (Howe et al., 2018b). doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.05.011, Mitchem, D. G., Purkey, A. M., Grebe, N. M., Carey, G., Garver-Apgar, C. E., Bates, T. C., et al. doi: 10.1038/ng.3406, Bulik-Sullivan, B. K., Loh, P. R., Finucane, H. K., Ripke, S., and Yang, J. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The role of enhancers modifying histones, chromatin states are key for normal range craniofacial development and relative position of the various craniofacial tissues. The facial surface is readily visible and identifiable with a close relationship to the underlying cartilaginous and skeletal structures (Stephan et al., 2005; Wilkinson et al., 2006; De Greef et al., 2006; Al Ali et al., 2014b; Shrimpton et al., 2014). et al., 2018) with differential DNA methylation, but contrastingly there is no clear evidence for an association between prenatal alcohol exposure and DNA methylation (Sharp et al., 2018). (2016). PLoS Genet. Some people believe that Scottish and Irish DNA is similar, while others believe that it is not. Orthodont. Dental anomalies as part of the cleft spectrum. make each individual human face unique, although closely related individuals such as monozygotic twins have very similar facial structures. doi: 10.1097/01.scs.0000171847.58031.9e, Farkas, L. G., Tompson, B. D., Katic, M. J., and Forrest, C. R. (2002). [Epub ahead of print]. Dentofacial Orthop. 171, 771780. 1), R73R81. WebThe website faceresearch.org allows you to participate in short online psychology experiments looking at the traits people find attractive in faces and voices. The genome is comprised of 3.2 billion nucleotides wrapped in octomeric units of histones (chromatin). Confirming genes influencing risk to cleft lip with/without cleft palate in a case-parent trio study. A 3D morphometric perspective for facial gender analysis and classification using geodesic path curvature features. doi: 10.1093/ejo/21.2.137, Visel, A., Rubin, E. M., and Pennacchio, L. A. doi: 10.1002/rcs.352, Bhatia, S. N., Wright, G. W., and Leighton, B. C. (1979). doi: 10.1002/humu.22054, Heike, C. L., Upson, K., Stuhaug, E., and Weinberg, S. M. (2010). (2018). Psychol. Science 354, 760764. (2018a). Post-natally, facial growth tends to follow general somatic growth with periods of steady increments in size interspersed with periods of rapid growth with the peak growth occurring at puberty (Tanner et al., 1966a,b; Bhatia et al., 1979; Kau and Richmond, 2008; Richmond et al., 2009; Richmond S. et al., 2018). The analytical techniques (particularly the bootstrapped response-based imputation modeling (BRIM) and hierarchical spectral clustering analysis) employed by Claes et al. doi: 10.1111/joa.12182, Mirghani, H., Osman, N., Dhanasekaran, S., Elbiss, H. M., and Bekdache, G. (2015). Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with mitochondrial DNA methylation. 12:e1006174. A genome-wide association study of cleft lip with and without cleft palate identifies risk variants near MAFB and ABCA4. The assessment of facial variation in 4747 British school children. doi: 10.1038/ng.3570, Pirttiniemi, P. M. (1994). The influence of snoring, mouth breathing and apnoea on facial morphology in late childhood: a three-dimensional study. Genet. For infants and individuals with unpredictable facial or bodily movements a faster acquisition time will be required although reliability of achieving the same facial posture will be significantly reduced. Investigating the shared genetics of non-syndromic cleft lip/palate and facial morphology. Although, it is known that the PAX3 influences the prominence of the bridge of the nose it is more challenging to know to what extent this influences adjacent facial regions in each individual. 115, 5173. Kau, C. H., Richmond, S., Zhurov, A., Ovsenik, M., Tawfik, W., Borbely, P., et al. Med. *Correspondence: Stephen Richmond, r[emailprotected], The Genes and Mechanisms Underlying Normal-Range Craniofacial Variation, View all Aust. JAMA Pediatr. This initiative has been facilitated by the availability of low-cost hi-resolution three-dimensional systems which have the ability to capture the facial details of thousands of individuals quickly and accurately. The teeth and faces of twins: providing insights into dentofacial development and oral health for practising oral health professionals.

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